Operating Strategy, Multiple Reactor System, Raising Temperature, Lactase, Regulatory Considerations, Pharmaceuticals, Food Industry

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Biocatalysis and Enzyme Biotechnology Biocatalysis and Enzyme Biotechnology - Introduction Some Research Activities Involving Enzymatic Synthesis Properties of Enzymes Parameters Affecting Enzymatic Reactions Definitions of Some Parameters used for Describing Key Properties of Enzymes Medium for Enzymes Aqueous vs Organic Solvent Selectivity of Enzymes Types of Enzymes Biomimetic Catalysts Enzymes Commonly Used in Organic Synthesis Extremozymes Cofactor Dependent Enzymes and Cofactor Regeneration Modular Enzymes Coenzymes Use of Enzymes Medical and Clinical Uses Drugs for Digestive Disorders Industrial Uses Uses of Industrial Uses Textile Industry Uses of Leather Industry Uses of Paper Industry Cellulase Free Xylanases Uses of Food Industry Isolation and Purification of Enzymes

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Operating Strategy
An operating strategy also need to be prepared for the use of immobilized enzymes to have maximum production at minimum cost. Since the enzyme activity falls down in due course of time, the production rate also falls. This is minimized by (i) using a multiple reactor system, in which start-up and reloading time for each reactor is staggered with other reactors in series or parallel (as done in case of glucose isomerase), and by (ii) raising temperature to compensate for loss in activity (as has been done for lactase).

The operating costs have to be kept in mind, while deciding about the operating mind, while deciding about the operating strategies and will include cost of the following: (i) immobilized enzymes (including carrier system, immobilization equipment, etc.); (ii) labour (including fringe benefits, supervision and other overhead expenses); (iii) depreciation charges of the equipment used, which may be upto 20% of the capital annually and (iv) raw material losses at each processing step.

Regulatory considerations
For using immobilized enzymes, particularly for producing food or pharmaceuticals, it is necessary to get approval of appropriate authority (e.g. Food and Drug Administration or FDA in USA) for the use of a particular fixing agent or a carrier system. These fixing agents have to be declared safe by these authorities. Only two fixing agents for glucose isomerase are approved and these are (i) diethylaminoethyl cellulose and (ii) glutaraldehyde. Many of the fixing agents reported in literature are not 'approved for use in food industry.

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Extraction of Enzymes Preparation of Crude Enzymes Purification of Enzymes Chromatography Adsorption Chromatography Ion Exchange Chromatography Gel Filtration Chromatography Affinity Chromatography Electrophoresis Immobilization of Enzymes or Whole Cells Techniques for Immobilization Adsorption Method Covalent Binding Method Cross Binding Method Some Reagents Used to Immobilize Enzymes by Cross Linking Entrapping Method Entrapping by Microencapsulation Requirements for Commercial use of Immobilized Enzyme Systems Enzyme Carrier Systems Some Applications of Immobilized Enzymes and Whole Cells Reactor Types Operating Strategy Stability of Immobilization and Protection of Immobilized EnzymesCells Some Examples of the Use of Immobilized Enzymes Cells Industrial Biocatalysis Biotransformation of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids PUFAs Hydrolalse Mediated Biotransformations Oxidative Biotransformation Enzyme Engineering

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